Dog DNA Test: What It Can and Cannot Tell You, According to Research

Bottom line: A dog DNA test reads selected DNA markers from a cheek swab and compares them with dogs of known breed. It is useful for estimating breed ancestry and for finding known variants, such as MDR1 drug sensitivity or carrier status before breeding. It is a poor guide to personality: Morrill et al. (2022) found breed explains only about 9% of behavioral variation in individuals. Health results are screens, not diagnoses, and no regulator oversees canine genetic testing laboratories (Shaffer et al., 2019). “At risk” is a probability: in Zeng et al. (2014), 60% of dogs with two copies of the common degenerative myelopathy variant developed signs. Take every health result to a veterinarian.

SamMy vet has never mentioned DNA kits. Are they a real health tool or just an expensive novelty?

Elena MarshThey can be a useful screen. Donner et al. (2018) tested over 100,000 dogs for 152 known disease variants and found about two in five carried at least one copy. Carrying a copy is not the same as being ill.

SamThe breed result is what tempts me most. Will it explain why my rescue dog behaves the way she does?

Elena MarshProbably only a little. Morrill et al. (2022) surveyed the owners of 18,385 dogs through the Darwin’s Ark project and found breed explained just 9% of behavioral variation in individuals.

SamAnd if the health report says “at risk”, does my dog need treatment straight away?

Elena MarshNo. Shaffer et al. (2019) say consumer array results are genetic screens, not diagnostic tests, and should not be the basis for irreversible decisions. A veterinarian decides whether an examination, monitoring or a confirmatory test makes sense.

What a dog DNA test actually measures

Nearly every consumer dog DNA test starts with a cheek swab, which you rub inside your dog’s cheek and post to a laboratory. The swab collects loose cheek cells, each holding a full copy of the dog’s DNA.

A gene is a stretch of DNA that tells the body how to make one product, such as a protein. A variant is a spot where one dog’s DNA differs from another’s. Most consumer tests check a fixed list of known positions rather than the whole genome. A position where dogs commonly differ by a single DNA letter is called a SNP (single-nucleotide polymorphism, pronounced “snip”). A SNP array, or beadchip, is a chip that checks many SNPs in one run.

Parker et al. (2017) used the Illumina CanineHD bead array and kept 150,067 informative SNPs for 1,346 dogs from 161 breeds. Donner et al. (2018) used a custom beadchip to test over 100,000 dogs for 152 known disease variants. The alternative is a targeted test, which examines one known variant, usually because it matters in a particular breed. Shaffer et al. (2019) note that on an array, all probes “are interrogated on a single device and performed at the same time.” In their view, such platforms “do not meet the desired standard as published” for independent confirmation, so array results are screens rather than diagnostic tests.

One swab can produce four very different kinds of result:

The American Kennel Club’s DNA program page states that “AKC DNA testing does not determine the breed of dog or if a dog is purebred.” Its DNA Profile also gives no information about “the presence/absence of genetic diseases.” Trait results can carry health weight, as the article on merle and hearing-test data in the Catahoula Leopard Dog shows.

Breed identification: how it works and how far to trust it

SamTwo kits could give my mixed-breed dog two different breed lists. How can both be right?

Elena MarshEach company compares your dog with its own reference dogs. Rando et al. (2024) found that predictions differed across six tests even for purebred dogs, although five tests always included the registered breed.

Breed tests work by comparison. The laboratory compares your dog’s SNPs with a reference panel, which is a collection of dogs whose breeds are already known. Software then estimates what share of your dog’s DNA most resembles each breed. Morrill et al. (2022), for example, used 101 reference breeds, with 12 dogs per breed and 688,060 SNPs.

Purebred dogs are the easy case. Parker et al. (2017) found that 146 of 161 breeds (91%) formed their own distinct branch on a DNA family tree, with 100% bootstrap support. That means the branch appeared in all 100 re-analyses of resampled data. Some close relatives, such as the Bull Terrier and Miniature Bull Terrier, did not separate cleanly. Shared history also helps explain “why numerous, sometimes deleterious, mutations are shared across seemingly unrelated breeds.” Deleterious means harmful.

Mixed breeds and missing breeds

Mixed-breed dogs are much harder to call. Morrill et al. (2022) found that mutts were rarely (17%) mixes of just two breeds. Most (66%) carried more than 5% ancestry from four or more breeds. Parker et al. note that “there are nearly 400 modern domestic dog breeds,” and a company can only report breeds it holds reference dogs for. With no match, Elinor Karlsson of the Broad Institute told CBC, the algorithm then finds “the next closest thing” and, in effect, guesses.

Why two companies can disagree

A peer-reviewed comparison exists for purebred dogs. Rando et al. (2024) studied 12 registered purebred dogs of 12 different breeds. Each owner sent six cheek swabs, one to each of six consumer testing companies. Half the dogs were registered with their own photograph and half with another dog’s. Results from five of the six tests always included the dog’s registered breed. One test was unlikely to identify the registered breed and “frequently returned results that were more similar to the photograph than the DNA.” The authors add that differences across all the tests “underscored the challenge of identifying breed ancestry, even in purebred dogs.” The study covered purebred dogs only, so it does not show how well the tests handle mixed breeds.

A smaller, consumer-level check found wider disagreement. In a report published in March 2023, CBC Marketplace described sending four samples (two mixed-breed dogs, a purebred Great Dane and a human) to Wisdom Panel, Embark, Accu-metrics and DNA My Dog (Cowley and Dhanraj, 2023). “Nearly all the results were different, even for the same dog,” the program reported. Embark and Wisdom Panel said testing failed on the human sample, while DNA My Dog reported “Level 2 basenji and Level 2 beagle.” CBC reported Karlsson’s view that “the difference in results likely amounts to which breeds and how many samples are in each company’s databases.” With four samples, this was an illustration, not a measured accuracy rate.

What breed does, and does not, predict

Dog DNA tests, Morrill et al. (2022) note, are “marketed as tools for learning about a dog’s personality and training needs.” Breed explained just 9% of behavioral variation in individuals and “offers little predictive value for individuals.” The Science editors’ summary added that breed “should not be used to inform decisions relating to selection of a pet dog.” A breed result describes ancestry, not character.

Health results: clear, carrier, at risk, and what penetrance means

A dog has two copies of almost every gene, one from each parent. A health panel reports how many copies of each listed variant your dog carries:

• Clear: no copies of the variant tested.
• Carrier: one copy. For an autosomal recessive disease, which needs two copies, a carrier is usually healthy but can pass the variant to puppies. Autosomal means the gene is not on the X or Y chromosome.
• At risk (affected genotype): two copies of a recessive variant, or one copy of a dominant variant, which acts on its own. This means a raised chance of disease, not a certainty.

Genes on the X chromosome are the exception, because males have only one X. A male with one copy of an X-linked variant can be affected, while a female with one copy is usually a carrier. Two X-linked bleeding disorders, hemophilia A in the Boxer and hemophilia B in the Rhodesian Ridgeback, have their own articles.

Penetrance: degenerative myelopathy as the worked example

Penetrance is the share of dogs with an at-risk genotype that actually develop the disease; when it is incomplete, some never do. Degenerative myelopathy (DM) is a progressive spinal cord disease that affects walking, and it is often compared with ALS in people. Awano et al. (2009) first linked it to a variant in the SOD1 gene. Zeng et al. (2014) then genotyped 33,747 dogs and found the main risk allele, SOD1:c.118A, in cross-bred dogs and in 124 breeds. An allele is one version of a variant. In a group sampled before age 8 and followed to at least age 10:

• 60% of the 30 dogs with two copies (A/A) developed signs consistent with DM.
• 4% of the 55 dogs with one copy (A/G) did so.
• 6% of the dogs with no copies (G/G) did so.

Among 168 dogs with DM confirmed in spinal cord tissue, 157 were A/A, 9 were A/G and 2 were G/G. Yet 12 of the 30 A/A dogs did not develop signs during the study, and a few dogs developed DM without that genotype. Zeng et al. concluded that breeding to avoid A/A puppies “is a rational strategy.” Breed-level detail is in the articles on degenerative myelopathy in the Boxer, the Wire Fox Terrier, where most dogs carry the risk allele, and the Chesapeake Bay Retriever.

A variant’s meaning can depend on the breed

Donner et al. (2018) found 22 disease variants in at least one breed where they had not been described before. They stressed “the need for follow up investigations in each case.” Von Willebrand disease (vWD), an inherited bleeding disorder, shows why. The originally published vWD type 2 “risk variant” appeared in more than 10 additional breeds. Yet the dogs’ clinical von Willebrand factor measurements were borderline or normal. The authors concluded that the original variant “is in fact not the causal variant in the gene.” The article on type 1 vWD in the Manchester Terrier covers a different vWD test.

Overall, 40.5% of the dogs Donner et al. tested carried at least one screened variant. Most of the study’s authors worked for Genoscoper Laboratories or Wisdom Health, both commercial testing providers.

Finally, “clear” means clear of the variant tested, not clear of the disease. The articles on muscular dystrophy in the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel and spinocerebellar ataxia in the Parson Russell Terrier show how one clear result can leave a second variant or gene untested.

Why “at risk” is not a diagnosis, and what to do with the result

SamThe report flagged my ten-year-old dog for degenerative myelopathy. Does that mean the worst is coming?

Elena MarshNot on its own. In Zeng et al. (2014), 12 of the 30 dogs with two copies did not develop signs during the study. A veterinarian can examine your dog and explain what the result means.

A genetic test reports a genotype, which is the DNA a dog carries at one spot. A diagnosis is a veterinarian’s conclusion that disease is present, based on signs, an examination and other tests. Shaffer et al. (2019) stress “the difference between a genetic screen and a diagnostic test.” Owners and veterinarians need to know “which results can be acted upon” and which “may require follow-up or confirmation.” The authors want consumer array tests labeled clearly as screens, so that everyone understands “no irreversible decisions (such as spay, neuter or euthanasia) should be made on the basis of such testing.” The same logic applies to rehoming a dog or changing its treatment. They add that non-peer-reviewed mutations “should be labeled as investigational.” The article on Lafora disease in the Pembroke Welsh Corgi shows how thin breed-level evidence can be.

In Nature, Moses, Niemi and Karlsson (2018) open with Petunia, a 13-year-old pug with trouble walking and controlling her bladder and bowels. A direct-to-consumer test suggested she carried a mutation linked to a condition similar to ALS. The authors, two of them veterinarians, warn that it is “too easy for companies to sell false hope,” and they call for regulation.

What to do after an at-risk result

1. Read the exact result. Note the gene, the variant, the number of copies, and whether the test is validated for your dog’s breed.
2. See a veterinarian and bring the report. If your dog already has signs, the examination decides, not the genotype.
3. Ask whether a confirmatory test makes sense, since array results are screens.
4. Check the published basis for the test in the HGTD database described below.
5. Make no irreversible decision on a screen alone. Do not spay, neuter, rehome or euthanize a dog, or change medication, without veterinary advice.

The results that are genuinely actionable today

SamSo which results are actually worth acting on now, with a vet involved?

Elena MarshMDR1 is the clearest case. Mealey et al. (2001) showed that collies with two copies of an mdr1 deletion were extremely sensitive to the drug ivermectin, so a known result is worth telling your vet.

MDR1 and drug sensitivity

The mdr1 gene makes P-glycoprotein, a pump in the blood-brain barrier, the lining that controls what passes from the blood into the brain. P-glycoprotein pumps certain drugs “from the brain back into the blood,” including the anti-parasite drug ivermectin. Mealey et al. (2001) at Washington State University found a 4-base-pair deletion in mdr1 that cuts P-glycoprotein production short. Collies with two copies were sensitive to ivermectin. Those with one copy or none did not show increased sensitivity in that study. Donner et al. (2018), however, reported owner and clinician accounts of mixed-breed dogs with one copy that recovered slowly after anesthesia, with drugs including acepromazine and butorphanol. Recovery sometimes took “up to four days.” These were individual reports, not a trial. The authors’ point was that knowing MDR1 status “prior to anesthetic procedures ensures that appropriate medication protocols or adjusted medication doses can be used.”

The full drug list is beyond the studies cited here. See the articles on MDR1 in the Australian Shepherd, the Long-Haired Whippet and the Silken Windhound, and never adjust a dose yourself. For anesthesia questions in other breeds, see malignant hyperthermia in the Pointer and the Greyhound’s anesthesia reputation.

Carrier screening before breeding

For an autosomal recessive disease, a carrier bred to a clear dog cannot produce puppies with two copies of that variant. A carrier bred to another carrier can, in about one puppy in four on average. So for these variants, breeders can keep good carrier dogs and still avoid affected litters. Examples include prcd-PRA in the Labrador Retriever, a form of progressive retinal atrophy, which is an inherited loss of vision. Others are exercise-induced collapse in the Chesapeake Bay Retriever, Collie eye anomaly in the Nova Scotia Duck Tolling Retriever and hereditary cataract in the Staffordshire Bull Terrier.

Two kinds of variant do not follow this rule. For X-linked variants, such as those behind hemophilia A and B or the Cavalier’s muscular dystrophy, a carrier dam can have affected male puppies even when mated to a clear sire. For dominant variants, one copy can cause disease, so a one-copy dog is not simply a carrier. Ask a veterinarian or the breed club how any carrier result applies to a planned mating.

Screening has practical limits too. When nearly every dog carries a variant, avoiding carriers stops working, and the article on hyperuricosuria in the Dalmatian explains that breed’s alternative.

Who checks the labs: regulation and quality

United States. The FDA’s page on how FDA regulates animal devices states that “the FDA does not require submission of a 510(k), PMA, or any pre-market approval for devices intended for animal use.” Animal devices include “certain diagnostic test kits,” and makers of animal-only devices need not register with the FDA. The page does not mention DNA tests by name.

Laboratories. An earlier standards paper by Shaffer and colleagues, published online in 2018, stated that “there are no guidelines for laboratories performing clinical testing on dogs.” Their 2019 follow-up adds that “there is currently no oversight for canine clinical genetic testing laboratories.” The authors found no organization willing to oversee an external proficiency program, which would send laboratories blind samples to check their answers. So they published a self-assessment checklist instead. They own or work for Paw Print Genetics and Feragen, both commercial laboratories.

International. The International Partnership for Dogs (IPFD) runs the Harmonization of Genetic Testing for Dogs (HGTD) database. It states: “There is currently no accreditation or standardization for genetic (DNA) testing for companion animals, and formal, international regulation/oversight is unlikely.” As of October 2023, it listed 82 test providers across 26 countries, with quality and accreditation details for more than 40. Listing is voluntary, so it is a directory, not a certification. The HGTD overview page adds that its entries include links to OMIA (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Animals, a public catalog) and to original publications.

United Kingdom and Europe. No UK or EU regulator statement on consumer pet DNA tests was found for this article. In practice, kennel clubs filter which tests count for breeding. The Royal Kennel Club removed a Keeshond DNA test for primary hyperparathyroidism from its Assured Breeders requirements. Its reason was that “there is no peer-reviewed scientific literature providing the details of the mutation tested for.”

How to judge a laboratory

• It names each gene and variant tested, not just the disease.
• It cites “the scientific evidence on which the test is based,” as Shaffer et al. (2019) say it should.
• It states whether each variant is validated in your dog’s breed, and marks unpublished tests as investigational.
• It labels array results as a screen and explains how to confirm one.

Choosing a test in the US and the UK

Start with what you want to know, not with a brand.

• The breed mix of a rescue dog. A breed-ancestry test gives an estimate. It is sharper for dogs with one or two breeds than for the four-plus-breed mixes that Morrill et al. (2022) found most common.
• Anything a vet should know. A health panel can flag variants such as MDR1. Check that the variants relevant to your dog’s breed or mix are on the menu.
• Breeding. Look for named tests for the breed, from a laboratory your club or registry accepts.
• Parentage. In the US, the AKC DNA Profile confirms parentage but says nothing about breed or disease.

Consumer services such as Embark and Wisdom Panel sell breed-ancestry kits, with wider panels that add health and trait results. The AKC sells AKC DNA + Health, which combines health and trait testing with identification. This article does not compare services or quote prices, because menus, prices and turnaround times change. Instead, use the site’s survey of which variants each of 33 dog and cat DNA test services officially lists. Confirm that your variant is covered, then check the company’s own page for current price and turnaround.

Check the variant name, not just the disease. One label can hide several tests. “PRA” is the classic case: the article on PRA in the Portuguese Water Dog covers a second PRA gene that the usual test leaves out, and the article on prcd-PRA in the Miniature Poodle explains why one variety sits under a different testing standard. For rarer breeds, the article on vitamin B12 malabsorption in the New Zealand Heading Dog sets out testing routes from the US, the UK and New Zealand.

US and UK context. In the US, parent breed clubs set the recommended tests. The AKC’s Bred with H.E.A.R.T. program “requires health testing of breeding stock in accordance with recommendations of their breed’s parent club,” according to the AKC’s guide to health testing. In the UK, breed recommendations “are suggested by breed clubs and are approved by the Royal Kennel Club’s committees,” according to its health-testing guidance.

Buying a puppy: the health tests a breeder should show you

SamThe breeder says both parents are “DNA tested”. Is that enough to feel reassured?

Elena MarshAsk which tests, and see the results. The Orthopedic Foundation for Animals’ CHIC program certifies that a dog completed its parent club’s recommended screening, but the OFA states the CHIC number itself does not imply normal results.

US: OFA and CHIC. The Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (OFA) runs the Canine Health Information Center (CHIC) with participating parent clubs. A dog earns CHIC certification “if it has been screened for every disease recommended by the parent club for that breed and those results are publicly available in the database.” However, “the CHIC number itself does not imply normal test results.” Because results are public, you can look up both parents. The AKC notes that while some puppy buyers only ask for proof of a veterinary check, “many others will want to see the health screening results from the sire and dam.” It also notes that “not all breeds are included in the CHIC program.”

UK: Assured Breeders. The Royal Kennel Club’s scheme sets “breed-specific health testing and screening requirements and recommendations.” Its September 2023 update made prcd-PRA DNA testing a requirement for the Finnish Lapphund and the Portuguese Water Dog. The club’s Health Test Results Finder lets buyers “look up the DNA test and health scheme records” of any registered dog. The club also publishes a list of “DNA testing laboratories the Royal Kennel Club accept and record results from,” so check it before ordering if a result should appear on the dog’s record.

How DNA fits with hip, elbow and eye screening

DNA tests only cover conditions with a known variant. The same update refers to the BVA/KC/ISDS Eye Scheme, an eye examination program, and made elbow grading a requirement for the German Shepherd Dog. Elbow grading uses X-rays, as hip scoring does. DNA results without the hip, elbow or eye screening a breed calls for show only part of the picture. The articles on late-onset PRA in the Gordon Setter and Collie eye anomaly in the Rough Collie explain why an early clear eye exam and a DNA result each cover only part of the risk.

Before you commit, ask for both parents’ results with registered names. Check that each “clear” is for the right variant. For an autosomal recessive variant, a carrier × clear mating produces no affected puppies. For X-linked variants, a carrier dam can still have affected sons, so ask a veterinarian or the breed club about any carrier result. And a DNA result never replaces a veterinary check of the puppy itself.

Privacy: what happens to the swab and the data

A kit sends a company a physical sample and, after analysis, a genetic data file. What happens to both is set by the company’s privacy policy and research terms, which differ and can change. Commercial companies’ terms were not reviewed for this article, so read them before buying.

The non-profit Darwin’s Ark, whose data underpin Morrill et al. (2022), is a useful benchmark. Its privacy policy says animal genetic and trait data “may be made publicly available for research purposes,” anonymized and without owner information. The foundation commits never to sell data. It warns that if owners share their pet’s data elsewhere, it “can no longer ensure that your pet’s genetic data will remain anonymous.” Owners have “the right to withdraw consent.” Some data may still be kept after deletion for accounting, website maintenance or “research data integrity.”

Ask the same of any service. Is research use opt-in? Is data shared or sold? Are owner details removed? Can you delete your account and sample, and what is kept afterward?

Frequently asked questions

Q. How accurate are dog DNA tests at identifying breed?
It depends on the dog and the test. In a peer-reviewed comparison of six consumer tests on 12 purebred dogs, five always included the dog’s registered breed, though predictions still differed between tests (Rando et al., 2024). Mixed breeds are harder, because most mutts carry ancestry from four or more breeds (Morrill et al., 2022). In a 2023 CBC Marketplace check, four companies disagreed on nearly every sample.

Q. Can a DNA test predict my dog’s personality or training needs?
Only weakly. Morrill et al. (2022) found that breed explained just 9% of behavioral variation in individual dogs and “offers little predictive value for individuals.”

Q. My dog’s report says “at risk.” Will my dog get the disease?
Not necessarily. In Zeng et al. (2014), 60% of 30 dogs with two copies of the main degenerative myelopathy risk allele developed signs, so 12 did not during the study. Ask a veterinarian to interpret it, and do not start or stop any treatment on a consumer result alone.

Q. If the result is “clear,” is my dog safe from that disease?
No. A clear result only means the specific variant tested was not found. Some diseases have several variants or genes. In Zeng et al. (2014), 2 of 168 confirmed DM cases had no copies of the main risk allele. Keep up regular veterinary checks.

Q. Are dog DNA tests regulated in the US or the UK?
Not closely. The FDA requires no pre-market approval for animal devices, including certain diagnostic test kits. Shaffer et al. (2019) report no oversight of canine genetic testing laboratories, and the IPFD says there is no accreditation or standardization. No UK-specific regulator statement was found, although the Royal Kennel Club records DNA results from a list of accepted laboratories.

Q. Does an AKC DNA Profile show my dog’s breed or health?
No. The AKC states that its DNA testing “does not determine the breed of dog or if a dog is purebred,” and the profile gives no information on genetic diseases. It is a parentage and identity record.

Q. Is a dog DNA test worth it?
It depends on your goal. A breed result is an estimate, not a behavior guide. A health panel is most useful for actionable variants such as MDR1, which a veterinarian can use when planning drugs and anesthesia. Discuss any health result with a veterinarian.

References

• Donner J, Anderson H, Davison S, et al. (2018) Frequency and distribution of 152 genetic disease variants in over 100,000 mixed breed and purebred dogs. PLOS Genetics 14(4):e1007361. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1007361
• Moses L, Niemi S, Karlsson E (2018) Pet genomics medicine runs wild. Nature 559(7715):470-472. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-05771-0
• Morrill K, Hekman J, Li X, et al. (2022) Ancestry-inclusive dog genomics challenges popular breed stereotypes. Science 376(6592):eabk0639. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abk0639
• Parker HG, Dreger DL, Rimbault M, et al. (2017) Genomic Analyses Reveal the Influence of Geographic Origin, Migration, and Hybridization on Modern Dog Breed Development. Cell Reports 19(4):697-708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2017.03.079
• Shaffer LG, Geretschlaeger A, Ramirez CJ, Ballif BC, Carl C (2019) Quality assurance checklist and additional considerations for canine clinical genetic testing laboratories: a follow-up to the published standards and guidelines. Human Genetics 138(5):501-508. Follow-up to: Shaffer LG et al. Standards and guidelines for canine clinical genetic testing laboratories. Human Genetics 138(5):493-499 (published online 2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-019-02013-9
• Mealey KL, Bentjen SA, Gay JM, Cantor GH (2001) Ivermectin sensitivity in collies is associated with a deletion mutation of the mdr1 gene. Pharmacogenetics 11(8):727-733. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11692082/
• Zeng R, Coates JR, Johnson GC, et al. (2014) Breed distribution of SOD1 alleles previously associated with canine degenerative myelopathy. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 28(2):515-521. Original variant discovery: Awano T et al. (2009) PNAS 106(8):2794-2799. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.12317
• U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Veterinary Medicine (2026) How FDA Regulates Animal Devices. https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/animal-health-literacy/how-fda-regulates-animal-devices
• International Partnership for Dogs (2016, updated 2023) IPFD Harmonization of Genetic Testing for Dogs: Initiative Description. DogWellNet. https://dogwellnet.com/content/hgtd-quality-database/ipfd-harmonization-of-genetic-testing-for-dogs-initiative-description-r415/. Related page: Harmonization of Genetic Testing for Dogs (HGTD) overview. https://dogwellnet.com/ipfd/what-we-do/harmonization-of-genetic-testing-for-dogs/
• Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (n.d.) Canine Health Information Center (CHIC) Program. https://ofa.org/chic-programs/
• The Royal Kennel Club (2023) Latest updates to The Kennel Club Assured Breeders scheme. https://www.royalkennelclub.com/about-us/resources/media-centre/2023/september/latest-updates-to-the-kennel-club-assured-breeders-scheme/. Related pages: Getting started with health testing and screening. https://www.royalkennelclub.com/health-and-dog-care/health-dog-care/health/getting-started-with-health-testing-and-screening/; Dog Health Test Results Finder. https://www.royalkennelclub.com/search/health-test-results-finder/
• American Kennel Club (2026) DNA and the AKC. https://www.akc.org/breeder-programs/dna/. Related article: Health Testing for a Stronger Breed (updated 13 August 2026). https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/dog-breeding/health-testing-for-a-stronger-breed/
• Darwin’s Ark Foundation (2026) Darwin’s Ark Privacy Policy. https://darwinsark.org/privacy-policy
• Cowley J, Dhanraj T (2023) How accurate are dog DNA tests? We unleash the truth. CBC News (Marketplace), 4 March 2023. https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/marketplace-dog-dna-test-1.6763274
• Rando HM, Graim K, Hampikian G, Greene CS (2024) Many direct-to-consumer canine genetic tests can identify the breed of purebred dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 262(5):1-8. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.23.07.0372

About the author

Elena Marsh

Editor & writer (not a veterinarian)

A writer with a molecular-biology background and a lifelong dog and cat owner. Not a veterinarian — she translates peer-reviewed genetics research and primary data into plain language, always as information rather than diagnosis.